Ожиріння в дітей: визначення, лікування, профілактика. Клінічні практичні настанови Ендокринологічного Товариства. Частина 3
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.1210/jc.2016-2573Анотація
Асоціації-співавтори. Європейське Ендокринологічне Товариство і Педіатричне Ендокринологічне Товариство. Ці настанови профінансовано Ендокринологічним Товариством.
Мета. Сформулювати клінічні практичні настанови щодо визначення, лікування і профілактики ожиріння в дітей.
Учасники. Ендокринологічне Товариство обрало учасниками шість експертів, методиста й укладача медичних текстів.
Докази. Ці науково обґрунтовані настанови розроблено з використанням принципу градації рекомендацій, оцінки та експертизи ступеня їх обґрунтованості (Grading of Recommendations, Assessment, Development, and Evaluation — GRADE) для опису як ступеня переконливості рекомендацій, так і якості доказової бази. Робоча група врахувала дані двох систематичних оглядів і використала найкращі доступні свідчення інших опублікованих систематичних оглядів і окремих досліджень.
Процес узгодження. Одна групова зустріч, кілька конференцзв’язків, а також спілкування електронною поштою забезпечили досягнення консенсусу. Комітет Ендокринологічного Товариства, його члени, організації-співавтори вивчили та прокоментували попередні проекти цих рекомендацій.
Висновки. Дитяче ожиріння залишається постійною серйозною проблемою здоров’я у світі, що викликає стурбованість, оскільки вражає приблизно 17 % дітей і підлітків у США і загрожує здоров’ю дорослих і тривалості їх життя. Дитяче ожиріння бере початок у генетичній сприйнятливості, на яку впливають чинники навколишнього середовища, починаючи in utero і надалі впродовж дитинства та юності. Ендокринна етіологія ожиріння рідкісна й зазвичай супроводжується ознаками затримки зростання. Ожиріння в дітей зазвичай супроводжується супутніми захворюваннями і тривалими ускладненнями здоров’я; скринінг на супутні ожирінню захворювання слід проводити на регулярній основі задля вчасного їх виявлення, до виникнення серйозніших ускладнень. Генетичний скринінг на рідкісні синдроми показаний тільки за наявності специфічних анамнестичних або клінічних ознак. Психологічні впливи дитячого ожиріння на пацієнта і його родину вимагають проведення скринінгу на стан психічного здоров’я і в разі потреби — консультування. Профілактика дитячого ожиріння шляхом пропагування здорового харчування, активності й навколишнього середовища має бути основною метою, оскільки досягнення ефективних тривалих результатів зі зміною способу життя після виникнення ожиріння дуже складне. Хоча окремі дослідження поведінкової та фармакотерапії повідомляють про деякі успіхи, необхідні додаткові дослідження доступних і ефективних методів профілактики й лікування ожиріння в дітей. Використання препаратів для схуднення в дитячому та підлітковому віці має бути обмежене до клінічних випробувань. Збільшується кількість свідчень, що демонструють ефективність баріатричної хірургії в найтяжчих випадках ожиріння у підлітків старшого віку, у яких не вдалося досягти ефекту зміною способу життя, проте використання хірургічного лікування потребує досвідчених команд з ресурсами для тривалого подальшого спостереження. Підлітки, які отримують лікування ожиріння зміною способу життя або з використанням медикаментів, або баріатричної хірургії, потребують спільного планування, щоб допомогти їм ефективно перейти під нагляд у дорослому віці з продовженням необхідного моніторингу, підтримки і втручань. Перехідні програми з ожиріння є невід’ємною частиною допомоги, ефективність яких вимагає подальшого дослідження. Незважаючи на значне зростання кількості досліджень дитячого ожиріння від часу першої публікації цих настанов 8 років тому, необхідне подальше вивчення генетичних і біологічних чинників, які посилюють ризик збільшення маси тіла і впливають на відповідь на терапевтичні втручання. Також необхідно більше досліджень для кращого розуміння генетичних і біологічних чинників у людини з ожирінням, які призводять до маніфестації однієї супутньої хвороби порівняно з другою або взагалі не зумовлюють супутніх хвороб. Крім того, пріоритетним має бути продовження досліджень найефективніших методів профілактики і лікування ожиріння, а також методів зміни екологічних і економічних чинників, що призведуть до глобальних культурних змін у раціоні харчування і фізичній активності. Особливої уваги потребує визначення шляхів досягнення системних змін у харчовому середовищі й загальній щоденній активності, а також методів здорової зміни індексу маси тіла.
Посилання
Rajjo T, Mohammed K, Alsawas M, Ahmed AT, Farah W, Asi N, Almasri J, Prokop LJ, Murad MH. Treatment of pediatric obesity: an umbrella systematic review. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2017;102:763-775.
Tucker CM, Butler A, Kaye LB et al. Impact of a culturally sensitive health self-empowerment workshop series on health behaviors/lifestyles, BMI, and blood pressure of culturally diverse overweight/obese adults. Am J Lifestyle Med. 2014;8:122-132.
Li JS, Barnett TA, Goodman E et al. Approaches to the prevention and management of childhood obesity: the role of social networks and the use of social media and related electronic technologies: a scientific statement from the American Heart Association. Circulation. 2013;127:260-267.
Klein S, Sheard NF, Pi-Sunyer X et al. Weight management through lifestyle modification for the prevention and management of type 2 diabetes: rationale and strategies: a statement of the American Diabetes Association, the North American Association for the Study of Obesity, and the American Society for Clinical Nutrition. Diabetes Care. 2004;27:2067-2073.
Albright AL, Gregg EW. Preventing type 2 diabetes in communities across the U.S. Am J Prev Med. 2013;44:S346-S351.
Douketis JD, Macie C, Thabane L, Williamson DF. Systematic review of long-term weight loss studies in obese adults: clinical significance and applicability to clinical practice. Int J Obes. 2005;29:1153-1167.
Whitlock EP, O’Conner EA, Williams SB, Beil TL, Lutz KW. Effectiveness of Primary Care Interventions for Weight Managementin Children and Adolescents: An Updated, Targeted Systematic Review for the USPSTF. Rockville, MD: Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality; 2010.
Harder-Lauridsen NM, Birk NM, Ried-Larsen M et al. A randomized controlled trial on a multicomponent intervention for overweight school-aged children-Copenhagen, Denmark. BMC Pediatrv. 2014;14:273.
Weiss EC, Galuska DA, Kettel Khan L et al. Weight regain in U.S. adults who experienced substantial weight loss, 1999-2002. Am J Prev Med. 2007;33:34-40.
Thomas JG, Bond DS, Phelan S et al. Weight-loss maintenance for 10 years in the National Weight Control Registry. Am J Prev Med. 2014;46:17-23.
Lloyd-Richardson EE, Jelalian E, Sato AF et al. Two-year follow-up of an adolescent behavioral weight control intervention. Pediatrics. 2012;130:e281-e288.
Oude Luttikhuis H, Baur L, Jansen H et al. Interventions for treating obesity in children. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2009. Cd001872.
Wilfley DE, Stein RI, Saelens BE et al. Efficacy of maintenance treatment approaches for childhood overweight: a randomized controlled trial. JAMA. 2007;298:1661-1673.
Rhodes ET, Ludwig DS. Childhood obesity as a chronic disease: keeping the weight off. JAMA. 2007;298:1695-1696.
McGovern L, Johnson JN, Paulo R, Hettinger A, Singhal V, Kamath C, Erwin PJ, Montori VM. Clinical review: treatment ofpediatric obesity: a systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized trials. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2008;93:4600-4605.
Wilfley DE, Tibbs TL, Van Buren DJ et al. Lifestyle interventions in the treatment of childhood overweight: a meta-analytic review of randomized controlled trials. Health Psychol. 2007;26:521-532.
Hoelscher DM, Kirk S, Ritchie L, Cunningham-Sabo L. Position of the Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics: interventions for the prevention and treatment of pediatric overweight and obesity. J Acad Nutr Diet. 2013;113:1375-1394.
Spear BA, Barlow SE, Ervin C et al. Recommendations for treatment of child and adolescent overweight and obesity. Pediatrics. 2007;120 (Suppl. 4):S254-S288.
Freemark M. Pharmacotherapy of childhood obesity: an evidencebased, conceptual approach. Diabetes Care. 2007;30:395-402.
Goldschmidt AB, Wilfley DE, Paluch RA et al. Indicated prevention of adult obesity: how much weight change is necessary for normalization of weight status in children? JAMA Pediatr. 2013;167:21-26.
Epstein LH, Paluch RA, Roemmich JN, Beecher MD. Familybased obesity treatment, then and now: twenty-five years of pediatric obesity treatment. Health Psychol. 2007;26:381-391.
Goldschmidt AB, Stein RI, Saelens BE et al. Importance of early weight change in a pediatric weight management trial. Pediatrics. 2011;128:e33-e39.
Arora M, Nazar GP, Gupta VK et al. Association of breakfast intake with obesity, dietary and physical activity behavior among urban school-aged adolescents in Delhi, India: results of a cross-sectional study. BMC Public Health. 2012;12:881.
Grydeland M, Bergh IH, Bjelland M et al. Correlates of weight status among Norwegian 11-year-olds: the HEIA study. BMC Public Health. 2012;12:1053.
Yanovski SZ, Yanovski JA. Naltrexone extended-release plus bupropion extended-release for treatment of obesity. JAMA. 2015;313:1213-1214.
Wansink B, Painter JE, North J. Bottomless bowls: why visual cues of portion size may influence intake. Obes. Res. 2005;13:93-100.
Gow ML, Ho M, Burrows TL et al. Impact of dietary macronutrient distribution on BMI and cardiometabolic outcomes in overweight and obese children and adolescents: a systematic review. Nutr Rev. 2014;72:453-470.
World Health Organization. 2015 Guideline: sugars intake for adults and children. Available at: http://www.who.int/nutrition/ publications/guidelines. Accessed 10 January 2016.
Davis CL, Tomporowski PD, McDowell JE, Austin BP, Miller PH, Yanasak NE, Allison JD, Naglieri JA. Exercise improves executive function and achievement and alters brain activation in overweight children: a randomized, controlled trial. Health Psychol. 2011;30:91-98.
Schnohr P, O’Keefe JH, Marott JL et al. Dose of jogging and long-term mortality: the Copenhagen City Heart Study. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2015;65:411-419.
Lee DC, Pate RR, Lavie CJ et al. Leisuretime running reduces all-cause and cardiovascular mortality risk. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2014;64:472-481.
National Physical Activity Plan Alliance. The National Physical Activity Plan. Available at: http://www.physicalactivityplan.org/theplan/about.html. Accessed 17 March 2016.
Dentro KN, Beals K, Crouter SE et al. Results from the United States’ 2014 report card on physical activity for children and youth. J. Phys. Act. Health. 2014;11(Suppl 1):S105-S112.
Chriqui J, Resnick E, Chaloupka F. Bridging the Gap. School district wellness policies: evaluating progress and potential for improving children’s health five years after the federal mandate. Volume 3. February 2013. Available at: http://www.bridgingthegapresearch.org/_asset/13s2jm/WP_2013_report.pdf. Accessed 17 March 2016.
Johnston LD, O’Malley PM, Terry-McElrath YM, Colabianchi N. Bridging theGap. School policies and practices to improve health and prevent obesity: National secondary school survey results. Volume 3. March 2013. Available at: http://www.bridgingthegapresearch.org/_asset/gqq408/SS_2013_report.pdf. Accessed 17March 2016.
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Youth risk behavior surveillance-United States, 2011. Available at: http://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/preview/mmwrhtml/ss6104a1.htm. Accessed 17 March 2016.
Farooqi IS, O’Rahilly S. Mutations in ligands and receptors of the leptin-melanocortin pathway that lead to obesity. Nat Clin Pract Endocrinol Metab. 2008;4:569-577.
Pate RR, Davis MG, Robinson TN et al. Promoting physical activity in children and youth: a leadership role for schools: a scientific statement from the American Heart Association Council on Nutrition, Physical Activity, and Metabolism (Physical Activity Committee) in collaboration with the Councils on Cardiovascular Disease in the Young and Cardiovascular Nursing. Circulation. 2006;114:1214-1224.
McGovern L, Johnson JN, Paulo R, Hettinger A, Singhal V, Kamath C, Erwin PJ, Montori VM. Clinical review: treatment of pediatric obesity: a systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized trials. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2008;93:4600-4605.
Bucksch J, Inchley J, Hamrik Z et al. Trends in television time, non-gaming PC use and moderate-to-vigorous physical activity among German adolescents 2002-2010. BMC Public Health. 2014;14:351.
Veldhuis L, van Grieken A, Renders CM et al. Parenting style, the home environment, and screen time of 5-year-old children; the «be active, eat right» study. PLoS One. 2014;9:e88486.
Schwartz MB, Gilstad-Hayden K, Henderson KE et al. The relationship between parental behaviors and children’s sugary drink consumption is moderated by a television in the child’s bedroom. Child Obes. 2015;11:560-568.
Rhee KE, Lumeng JC, Appugliese DP et al. Parenting styles and overweight status in first grade. Pediatrics. 2006;117:2047-2054.
Jordan AB, Hersey JC, McDivitt JA, Heitzler CD. Reducing children’s television-viewing time: a qualitative study of parents and their children. Pediatrics. 2006;118:e1303-e1310.
Hearst MO, Sherwood NE, Klein EG et al. Parental perceptions of their adolescent’s weight status: the ECHO study. Am J Health Behav. 2011;35:248-255.
Huang JS, Becerra K, Oda T et al. Parental ability to discriminate the weight status of children: results of a survey. Pediatrics. 2007;120:e112-e119.
Goodman E, Hinden BR, Khandelwal S. Accuracy of teen and parental reports of obesity and body mass index. Pediatrics. 2000;106:52-58.
Schwimmer JB, Burwinkle TM, Varni JW. Health-related quality of life of severely obese children and adolescents. JAMA. 2003;289:1813-1819.
Varni JW, Limbers CA, Burwinkle TM. Impaired health-related quality of life in children and adolescents with chronic conditions: a comparative analysis of 10 disease clusters and 33 disease categories/severities utilizing the PedsQL 4.0 generic core scales. Health Qual. Life Outcomes. 2007;5:43.
Griffiths LJ, Parsons TJ, Hill AJ. Self-esteem and quality of life in obese children and adolescents: a systematic review. Int J Pediatr Obes. 2010;5:282-304.
Franklin J, Denyer G, Steinbeck KS et al. Obesity and risk of low self-esteem: a statewide survey of Australian children. Pediatrics. 2006;118:2481-2487.
Nowicka P, Hoglund P, Birgerstam P et al. Self-esteem in a clinical sample of morbidly obese children and adolescents. Acta Paediatr. 2009;98:153-158.
Britz B, Siegfried W, Ziegler A et al. Rates of psychiatric disorders in a clinical study group of adolescents with extreme obesity and in obese adolescents ascertained via a population based study. Int J Obes Relat Metab Disord. 2000;24:1707-1714.
Vila G, Zipper E, Dabbas M et al. Mental disorders in obese children and adolescents. Psychosom Med. 2004;66:387-394.
Erermis S, Cetin N, Tamar M et al. Is obesity a risk factor for psychopathology among adolescents? Pediatr Int. 2004;46:296-301.
Braet C, Mervielde I, Vandereycken W. Psychological aspects of childhood obesity: a controlled study in a clinical and nonclinical sample. J Pediatr Psychol. 1997;22:59-71.
Koval JJ, Pederson LL, Zhang X et al. Can young adult smoking status be predicted from concern about body weight and self-reported BMI among adolescents? Results from a ten-year cohort study. Nicotine Tob Res. 2008;10:1449-1455.
Gibson LY, Byrne SM, Davis EA et al. The role of family and maternal factors in childhood obesity. Med J Aust. 2007;186:591-595.
Gibson LY, Byrne SM, Blair E et al. Clustering of psychosocial symptoms in overweight children. Aust N Z J Psychiatry. 2008;42:118-125.
Zeller MH, Modi AC. Predictors of health-related quality of life in obese youth. Obesity (Silver Spring). 2006;14:122-130.
Tiggemann M. Body dissatisfaction and adolescent self-esteem: prospective findings. Body Image. 2005;2:129-135.
Fairburn CG, Harrison PJ. Eating disorders. Lancet. 2003;361:407-416.
Olvera N, McCarley K, Matthews-Ewald MR et al. Pathways for disordered eating behaviors in minority girls: the role of adiposity, peer weight-related teasing, and desire to be thinner. J Early Adolesc. 2015;October 2015:1-20.
Eddy KT, Tanofsky-Kraff M, Thompson-Brenner H et al. Eating disorder pathology among overweight treatment-seeking youth: clinical correlates and crosssectional risk modeling. Behav Res.Ther. 2007;45:2360-2371.
Van Vlierberghe L, Braet C, Goossens L, Mels S. Psychiatric disorders and symptom severity in referred versus non-referred overweight children and adolescents. Eur Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 2009;18:164-173.
Gray WN, Janicke DM, Ingerski LM, Silverstein JH. The impact of peer victimization, parent distress and child depression on barrier formation and physical activity in overweight youth. J Dev Behav Pediatr. 2008;29:26-33.
Taylor CB, Bryson S, Celio Doyle AA et al. The adverse effect of negative comments about weight and shape from family and siblings on women at high risk for eating disorders. Pediatrics. 2006;118:731-738.
Birch LL, Fisher JO, Davison K. K. Learning to overeat: maternal use of restrictive feeding practices promotes girls’ eating in the absence of hunger. Am J Clin Nutr. 2003;78:215-220.
Rollins BY, Loken E, Savage JS, Birch LL. Effects of restriction on children’s intake differ by child temperament, food reinforcement, and parent’s chronic use of restriction. Appetite. 2014;73:31-39.
Isnard P, Quantin L, Cortese S et al. Bulimic behaviours and psychopathology in obese adolescents and in their parents. Int J Pediatr Obes. 2010;5:474-482.
Zeller MH, Reiter-Purtill J, Ramey C. Negative peer perceptions of obese children in the classroom environment. Obesity (Silver Spring). 2008;16:755-762.
Fox CL, Farrow CV. Global and physical self-esteem and body dissatisfaction as mediators of the relationship between weight status and being a victim of bullying. J Adolesc. 2009;32:1287-1301.
Pearce MJ, Boergers J, Prinstein MJ. Adolescent obesity, overt and relational peer victimization, and romantic relationships. Obes Res 2002;10:386-393.
Pinhas-Hamiel O, Singer S, Pilpel N et al. Health-related quality of life among children and adolescents: associations with obesity. Int J Obes. 2006;30:267-272.
Young-Hyman D, Tanofsky-Kraff M, Yanovski SZ et al. Psychological status and weight-related distress in overweight or at-risk-for-overweight children. Obesity (Silver Spring). 2006;14:2249-2258.
McClure AC, Tanski SE, Kingsbury J et al. Characteristics associated with low self-esteem among US adolescents. Acad Pediatr. 2010;10:238-244.e2.
Rojas A, Storch EA. Psychological complications of obesity. Pediatr Ann. 2010;39:174-180.
Garry JP, Morrissey SL, Whetstone LM. Substance use and weight loss tactics among middle school youth. Int J Eat Disord. 2003;33:55-63.
Jellinek MM. J Pediatr.c Symptom Checklist. 2015. Available at: http://www.massgeneral.org/psychiatry/services/psc_home.aspx. Accessed 13 January 2017.
Yanovski SZ, Yanovski JA. Long-term drug treatment for obesity: A systematic and clinical review. JAMA. 2014;311:74-86.
Clements JN, Shealy KM. Liraglutide: an injectable option for the management of obesity. Ann Pharmacother. 2015;49:938-944.
Viner RM, Hsia Y, Tomsic T, Wong IC. Efficacy and safety of anti-obesity drugs in children and adolescents: systematic review and meta-analysis. Obes Rev. 2010;11:593-602.
Peirson L, Fitzpatrick-Lewis D, Morrison K et al. Treatment of overweight and obesity in children and youth: a systematic review and meta-analysis. CMAJ Open. 2015;3:E35-E46.
Sherafat-Kazemzadeh R, Yanovski SZ, Yanovski JA. Pharmacotherapy for childhood obesity: present and future prospects. Int J Obes. 2013;37:1-15.
Speiser PW, Rudolf MC, Anhalt H et al. Obesity consensus working G. Childhood obesity. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2005;90:1871-1887.
Centre for Public Health Excellence at NICE (UK); National Collaborating Centre for Primary Care (UK). Obesity: The Prevention, Identification, Assessment and Management of Overweight and Obesity in Adults and Children. London, England: National Institute for Health and Clinical Excellence (UK). - 2006.
Expert Panel on Integrated Guidelines for Cardiovascular Health and Risk Reduction in Children and Adolescents. Expert Panel on Integrated Guidelines for Cardiovascular Health and Risk Reduction in Children and Adolescents: summary report. Pediatrics. 2011;128(Suppl. 5):S213-S256.
Berkowitz RI, Wadden TA, Tershakovec AM, Cronquist JL. Behavior therapy and sibutramine for the treatment of adolescent obesity: a randomized controlled trial. JAMA. 2003;289:1805-1812.
Rauh JL, Lipp R. Chlorphentermine as an anorexigenic agent in adolescent obesity. Report of its efficacy in a double-blind study of 30 teen-agers. Clin. Pediatr. (Phila). 1968;7:138-140.
Lorber J. Obesity in childhood. A controlled trial of anorectic drugs. Arch Dis Child. 1966;41:309-312.
Von Spranger J. Phentermine resinate in obesity. Clinical trial of Mirapront in adipose children. Munch Med Wochenschr. 1965;107:1833-1834.
Andelman MB, Jones C, Nathan S. Treatment of obesity in underprivileged adolescents. Comparison of diethylpropion hydrochloride with placebo in a double-blind study. Clin Pediatr (Phila). 1967;6:327-330.
Golebiowska M, Chlebna-Sokol D, Kobierska I et al. Clinical evaluation of Teronac (mazindol) in the treatment of obesity in children. Part II. Anorectic properties and side effects (author’s transl). Przegl Lek. 1981;38:355-358.
Komorowski JM, Zwaigzne-Raczynska J, Owczarczyk I et al. Effect of mazindol (teronac) on various hormonal indicators in children with simple obesity. Pediatr Pol. 1982;57:241-246.
McElroy SL, Hudson JI, Mitchell JE et al. Efficacy and safety of lisdexamfetamine for treatment of adults with moderate to severe binge-eating disorder: a randomized clinical trial. JAMA Psychiatry. 2015;73:235-246.
McElroy SL, Guerdjikova AI, Mori N, Keck PE, Jr. Psychopharmacologic treatment of eating disorders: emerging findings. Curr Psychiatry Rep. 2015;17:35.
Godoy-Matos A, Carraro L, Vieira A et al. Treatment of obese adolescents with sibutramine: a randomized, double-blind, controlled study. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2005;90:1460-1465.
Berkowitz RI, Fujioka K, Daniels SR et al. Effects of sibutramine treatment in obese adolescents: a randomized trial. Ann Intern Med. 2006;145:81-90.
Smith SR, Weissman NJ, Anderson CM et al. Multicenter, placebo-controlled trial of lorcaserin for weight management. N Engl J Med. 2010;363:245-256.
Fidler MC, Sanchez M, Raether B et al. A one-year randomized trial of lorcaserin for weight loss in obese and overweight adults: the BLOSSOM trial. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2011;96:3067-3077.
Zinman B, Gerich J, Buse JB et al. Efficacy and safety of the human glucagon-like peptide-1 analog liraglutide in combination with metformin and thiazolidinedione in patients with type 2 diabetes (LEAD-4 Met+TZD). Diabetes Care. 2009;32:1224-1230.
Wadden TA, Hollander P, Klein S et al. Weight maintenance and additional weight loss with liraglutide after low-calorie-diet-induced weight loss: the SCALE Maintenance randomized study. Int J Obes. 2013;37:1443-1451.
Astrup A, Rossner S, Van Gaal L et al. Effects of liraglutide in the treatment of obesity: a randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled study. Lancet. 2009;374:1606-1616.
Garvey WT, Ryan DH, Look M et al. Two-year sustained weight loss and metabolic benefits with controlled-release phentermine/topiramate in obese and overweight adults (SEQUEL): a randomized, placebo-controlled, phase 3 extension study. Am J Clin Nutr. 2012;95:297-308.
Allison DB, Gadde KM, Garvey WT et al. Controlled-release phentermine/topiramate in severely obese adults: a randomized controlled trial (EQUIP). Obesity (Silver Spring). 2011;20:330-342.
Greenway FL, Fujioka K, Plodkowski RA et al. Effect of naltrexone plus bupropion on weight loss in overweight and obese adults (COR-I): a multicentre, randomised, double-blind, placebocontrolled, phase 3 trial. Lancet. 2010;376:595-605.
Padwal R. Contrave, a bupropion and naltrexone combination therapy for the potential treatment of obesity. Curr Opin Investig Drugs. 2009;10:1117-1125.
Farooqi IS, Matarese G, Lord GM, Keogh JM, Lawrence E, Agwu C, Sanna V, Jebb SA, Perna F, Fontana S, Lechler RI, DePaoli AM, O’Rahilly S. Beneficial effects of leptin on obesity, T cell hyporesponsiveness, and neuroendocrine/metabolic dysfunction of human congenital leptin deficiency. J Clin Invest. 2002;110:1093-1103.
Farooqi IS, Jebb SA, Langmack G et al. Effects of recombinant leptin therapy in a child with congenital leptin deficiency. N. Engl. J. Med. 1999;41:879-884.
Rosenstock J, Klaff LJ, Schwartz S et al. Effects of exenatide and lifestyle modification on body weight and glucose tolerance in obese subjects with and without pre-diabetes. Diabetes Care. 2010;33:1173—1175.
Kelly AS, Rudser KD, Nathan BM et al. The effectof glucagon-like peptide-1 receptor agonist therapy on body mass index in adolescents with severe obesity: a randomized, placebocontrolled, clinical trial. JAMA Pediatr. 2013;167:355-360.
Kelly AS, Metzig AM, Rudser KD et al. Exenatide as a weightloss therapy in extreme pediatric obesity: a randomized, controlled pilot study. Obesity (Silver Spring). 2012;20:364-370.
McDuffie JR, Calis KA, Uwaifo GI et al. Three-month tolerability of orlistat in adolescents with obesity-related comorbid conditions. Obes Res 2002;10:642-650.
Zhi J, Moore R, Kanitra L. The effect of short-term (21-day) orlistat treatment on the physiologic balance of six selected macrominerals and microminerals in obese adolescents. J Am Coll Nutr. 2003;22:357-362.
Norgren S, Danielsson P, Jurold R et al. Orlistat treatment in obese prepubertal children: a pilot study. Acta Paediatr. 2003;92:666-670.
Ozkan B, Bereket A, Turan S, Keskin S. Addition of orlistat to conventional treatment in adolescents with severe obesity. Eur J Pediatr. 2004;163:738-741.
McDuffie JR, Calis KA, Uwaifo GI et al. Efficacy of orlistat as an adjunct to behavioral treatment in overweight African American and Caucasian adolescents with obesity-related co-morbid conditions. J Pediatr Endocrinol Metab. 2004;17:307-319.
Chanoine JP, Hampl S, Jensen C et al. Effect of orlistat on weight and body composition in obese adolescents: a randomized controlled trial. JAMA. 2005;293:2873-2883.
Maahs D, de Serna DG, Kolotkin RL et al. Randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial of orlistat for weight loss in adolescents. Endocr Pract. 2006;12:18-28.
Freemark M, Bursey D. The effects of metformin on body mass index and glucose tolerance in obese adolescents with fasting hyperinsulinemia and a family history of type 2 diabetes. Pediatrics. 2001;107:e55.
Atabek ME, Pirgon O. Use of metformin in obese adolescents with hyperinsulinemia: a 6-month, randomized, double-blind, placebocontrolled clinical trial. J Pediatr Endocrinol Metab. 2008.21:339-348.
Love-Osborne K, Sheeder J, Zeitler P. Addition of metformin to a lifestyle modification program in adolescents with insulin resistance. J Pediatr. 2008;152:817-822.
Wilson DM, Abrams SH, Aye T et al. Metformin extended release treatment of adolescent obesity: a 48-week randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial with 48-week follow-up. Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med. 2010;164:116-123.
Yanovski JA, Krakoff J, Salaita CG et al. Effects of metformin on body weight and body composition in obese insulinresistantn children: a randomized clinical trial. Diabetes. 2011;60:477-485.
Kendall D, Vail A, Amin R et al. Metformin in obese children and adolescents: the MOCA trial. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2013;98:322-329.
Gambineri A, Patton L, De Iasio R et al. Efficacy of octreotide-LAR in dieting women with abdominal obesity and polycystic ovary syndrome. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2005;90:3854-3862.
Haqq AM, Stadler DD, Rosenfeld RG et al. Circulating ghrelin levels are suppressed by meals and octreotide therapy in children with Prader-Willi syndrome. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2003;88:3573-3576.
Lustig RH, Hinds PS, Ringwald-Smith K et al. Octreotide therapy of pediatric hypothalamic obesity: a doubleblind, placebo-controlled trial. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2003;88(6):2586-2592.
Lustig RH, Rose SR, Burghen GA et al. Hypothalamic obesity caused by cranial insult in children: altered glucose and insulin dynamics and reversal by a somatostatin agonist. J Pediatr. 1999;135:162-168.
Lustig RH, Greenway F, Velasquez-Mieyer P et al. A multicenter, randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled, dose-finding trial of a long-acting formulation of octreotide in promoting weight loss in obese adults with insulin hypersecretion. Int J Obes. 2006;30:331-341.
Shadid S, Jensen MD. Effects of growth hormone administration in human obesity. Obes Res. 2003;11:170-175.
Weng SF, Redsell SA, Swift JA, Yang M, Glazebrook CP. Systematic review and meta-analyses of risk factors for childhood overweight identifiable during infancy. Arch Dis Child. 2012;97:1019-1026.
Czernichow S, Lee CM, Barzi F et al. Efficacy of weight loss drugs on obesity and cardiovascular risk factors in obese adolescents: a meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. Obes Rev. 2010;11:150-158.
Viner RM, Hsia Y, Neubert A, Wong IC. Rise in antiobesity drug prescribing for children and adolescents in the UK: a population based study. Br. J. Clin. Pharmacol. 2009;68:844-851.
Sun AP, Kirby B, Black C et al. Unplanned medication discontinuation as a potential pharmacovigilance signal: a nested young person cohort study. BMC Pharmacol Toxicol. 2014;15:11.
Lutjens A, Smit JL. Effect of biguanide treatment in obese children. Helv Paediatr Acta. 1977;31:473-480.
Kay JP, Alemzadeh R, Langley G et al. Beneficial effects of metformin in normoglycemic morbidly obese adolescents. Metabolism. 2001;50:1457-1461.
Arslanian SA, Lewy V, Danadian K, Saad R. Metformin therapy in obese adolescents with polycystic ovary syndrome and impaired glucose tolerance: amelioration of exaggerated adrenal response to adrenocorticotropin with reduction of insulinemia/insulin resistance. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2002;87:1555-1559.
Allen HF, Mazzoni C, Heptulla RA et al. Randomized controlled trial evaluating response to metformin versus standard therapy in the treatment of adolescents with polycystic ovary syndrome. J Pediat. Endocrinol Metab. 2005;18:761-768.
Schwimmer JB, Middleton MS, Deutsch R, Lavine JE. A phase 2 clinical trial of metformin as a treatment for non-diabetic paediatric non-alcoholic steatohepatitis. Aliment Pharmacol Ther. 2005;21:871-879.
Bridger T, MacDonald S, Baltzer F, Rodd C. Randomized placebo-controlled trial of metformin for adolescents with polycystic ovary syndrome. Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med. 2006;160:241-246.
De Leo V, Musacchio MC, Morgante G et al. Metformin treatment is effective in obese teenage girls with PCOS. Hum Reprod. 2006;21:2252-2256.
Srinivasan S, Ambler GR, Baur LA et al. Randomized, controlled trial of metformin for obesity and insulin resistance in children and adolescents: improvement in body composition and fasting insulin. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2006;91:2074-2080.
Fu JF, Liang L, Zou CC et al. Prevalence of the metabolic syndrome in Zhejiang Chinese obese children and adolescents and the effect of metformin combined with lifestyle intervention. Int J Obes. 2007;31:15-22.
Burgert TS, Duran EJ, Goldberg-Gell R et al. Short-term metabolic and cardiovascular effects of metformin in markedly obese adolescents with normal glucose tolerance. Pediatr. Diabetes. 2008;9:567-576.
Hoeger K, Davidson K, Kochman L et al. The impact of metformin, oral contraceptives, and lifestyle modification on polycystic ovary syndrome in obese adolescent women in two randomized, placebo-controlled clinical trials. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2008;93:4299-4306.
Clarson CL, Mahmud FH, Baker JE. e al. Metformin in combination with structured lifestyle intervention improved body mass index in obese adolescents, but did not improve insulin resistance. Endocrine. 2009;36:141-146.
Rezvanian H, Hashemipour M, Kelishadi R et al. A randomized, triple masked, placebo-controlled clinical trial for controlling childhood obesity. World J Pediatr. 2010;6:317-322.
Wiegand S, l’Allemand D, Hubel H et al. Metformin and placebo therapy both improve weight management and fasting insulin in obese insulin-resistant adolescents: a prospective, placebo-controlled, randomized study. Eur J Endocrinol. 2010;163:585-592.
Adeyemo MA, McDuffie JR, Kozlosky M et al. Effects of metformin on energy intake and satiety in obese children. Diabetes Obes Metab. 2015;17:363-370.
McDonagh MS, Selph S, Ozpinar A, Foley C. Systematic review of the benefits and risks of metformin in treating obesity in children aged 18 years and younger. JAMA Pediatr. 2014;168:178-184.
Morrison JA, Cottingham EM, Barton BA. Metformin for weight loss in pediatric patients taking psychotropic drugs. Am J Psychiatry. 2002;159:655-657.
Klein DJ, Cottingham EM, Sorter M et al. A randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial of metformin treatment of weight gain associated with initiation of atypical antipsychotic therapy in children and adolescents. Am J Psychiatry. 2006;163:2072-2079.
Onalan G, Goktolga U, Ceyhan T et al. Predictive value of glucose-insulin ratio in PCOS and profile of women who will benefit from metformin therapy: obese, lean, hyper or normoinsulinemic? Eur J Obstet Gynecol Reprod Biol. 2005;123:204-211.
Violante-Ort’іz R, Del-Rio-Navarro BE, Lara-Esqueda A et al. Use of sibutramine in obese Hispanic adolescents. Adv Ther. 2005;22:642-649.
Garc’іa-Morales LM, Berber A, Macias-Lara CC et al. Use of sibutramine in obese mexican adolescents: a 6-month, randomized, doubleblind, placebo-controlled, parallel-group trial. Clin Ther. 2006;28:770-782.
Reisler G, Tauber T, Afriat R et al. Sibutramine as an adjuvant therapy in adolescents suffering from morbid obesity. Isr Med Assoc J. 2006;8:30-32.
Budd GM, Hayman LL, Crump E et al. Weight loss in obese African American and Caucasian adolescents: secondary analysis of a randomized clinical trial of behavioral therapy plus sibutramine. J Cardiovasc Nurs. 2007;22:288-296.
Daniels SR, Long B, Crow S et al. Cardiovascular effects of sibutramine in the treatment of obese adolescents: results of a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled study. Pediatrics. 2007;120:e147-e157.
Danielsson P, Janson A, Norgren S, Marcus C. Impact sibutramine therapy in children with hypothalamic obesity or obesity with aggravating syndromes. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2007;92:4101-4106.
Van Mil EG, Westerterp KR, Kester AD et al. The effect of sibutramine on energy expenditure and body composition in obese adolescents. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2007;92:1409-1414.
Klein-Schwartz W. Abuse and toxicity of methylphenidate. Curr Opin Pediatr. 2002;14:219-223.
Bakker NE, Kuppens RJ, Siemensma EP, Tummers-de Lind van Wijngaarden RF, Festen DA, Bindels-de Heus GC, Bocca G, Haring DA, Hoorweg-Nijman JJ, Houdijk EC, Jira PE, Lunshof L, Odink RJ, Oostdijk W, Rotteveel J, Schroor EJ, Van Alfen AA, Van Leeuwen M, Van Pinxteren-Nagler E, Van Wieringen H, Vreuls RC, Zwaveling-Soonawala N, de Ridder MA, Hokken-Koelega A. C. Eight years of growth hormone treatment in children with Prader-Willi syndrome: maintaining the positive effects. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2013;98.:4013-4022.
Carrel AL, Myers SE, Whitman BY, Allen DB. Benefits of longterm GH therapy in Prader-Willi syndrome: a 4-year study. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2002;87:1581-1585.
Wolfgram PM, Carrel AL, Allen DB. Long-term effects of recombinant human growth hormone therapy in children with Prader-Willi syndrome. Curr Opin Pediatr. 2013;25:509-514.
Deal CL, Tony M, Hoybye C et al. the 2011 Growth Hormone in Prader-Willi Syndrome Clinical Care Guidelines Workshop. Growth Hormone Research Society workshop summary: consensus guidelines for recombinant human growth hormone therapy in Prader-Willi syndrome. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2013;98:E1072-E1087.
Hsu WH, Xiang HD, Rajan AS et al. Somatostatin inhibits insulin secretion by a G-protein-mediated decrease in Ca2+ entry through voltage-dependent Ca2+ channels in the beta cell. J Biol Chem. 1991;268:837-843.
Mitra SW, Mezey E, Hunyady B et al. Colocalization of somatostatin receptor sst5 and insulin in rat pancreatic b-cells. Endocrinology. 1999;140:3790-3796.
Bertoli A, Magnaterra R, Borboni P et al. Dose-dependent effect of octreotide on insulin secretion after OGTT in obesity. Horm Res. 1998;49:17-21.
Lustig RH, Hinds PS, Ringwald-Smith K et al. Octreotide therapy of pediatric hypothalamic obesity: a double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2003;88:2586-2592.
Scott LJ. Liraglutide: a review of its use in the management of obesity. Drugs. 2015;75:899-910.
Gibson WT, Farooqi IS, Moreau M et al. Congenital leptin deficiency due to homozygosity for the Delta133G mutation: report of another case and evaluation of response to four years of leptin therapy. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2004;89:4821-4826.
Paz-Filho G, Wong ML, Licinio J. Ten years of leptin replacement therapy. Obes Rev. 2011;12:e315-e323.
Shetty GK, Matarese G, Magkos F et al. Leptin administration to overweight and obese subjects for 6 months increases free leptin concentrations but does not alter circulating hormones of the thyroid and IGF axes during weight loss induced by a mild hypocaloric diet. Eur J Endocrinol. 2011;165:249-254.
Moon HS, Matarese G, Brennan AM et al. Efficacy of metreleptin in obese patients with type 2 diabetes: cellular and molecular pathways underlying leptin tolerance. Diabetes. 2011;60:1647-1656.
Korner J, Conroy R, Febres G et al. Randomized double-blind placebo-controlled study of leptin administration after gastric bypass. Obesity (Silver Spring). 2013;21:951-956.
Rissanen A, Lean M, Rossner S et al. Predictive value of early weight loss in obesity management with orlistat: an evidence-based assessment of prescribing guidelines. Int J Obes Relat Metab Disord. 2003;27:103-109.
Chanoine JP, Richard M. Early weight loss and outcome at one year in obese adolescents treated with orlistat or placebo. Int J Pediatr. Obes. 2011;6:95-101.
Nobili V, Vajro P, Dezsofi A et al. Indications and limitations of bariatric intervention in severely obese children and adolescents with and without nonalcoholic steatohepatitis: ESPGHAN Hepatology Committee position statement. J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr. 2015;60:550-561.
Sarr MG. Medical indications for weight-loss surgery in adolescents: but are there other equally important indications? JAMA Pediatr. 2014;168:11-12.
Zeller MH, Modi AC, Noll JG et al. Psychosocial functioning improves following adolescent bariatric surgery. Obesity (Silver Spring). 2009;17:985-990.
Loux TJ, Haricharan RN, Clements RH et al. Health-related quality of life before and after bariatric surgery in adolescents. J Pediatr Surg. 2008;43:1275-1279.
Olbers T, Gronowitz E, Werling M et al. Two-year outcome of laparoscopic Roux-en-Y gastric bypass in adolescents with severe obesity: results from a Swedish nationwide study (AMOS). Int J Obes. 2012;36:1388-1395.
Zeller MH, Reiter-Purtill J, Ratcliff MB et al. Two-year trends in psychosocial functioning after adolescent Roux-en-Y gastric bypass. Surg Obes Relat Dis. 2011;7:727-732.
Inge TH, Courcoulas AP, Jenkins TM et al. Weight loss and health status 3 years after bariatric surgery in adolescents. N Engl J Med. 2016;374:113-123.
Wasserman H, Inge TH. Bariatric surgery in obese adolescents: opportunities and challenges. Pediatr Ann. 2014;43:e230-e236.
Hsia DS, Fallon SC, Brandt ML. Adolescent bariatric surgery. Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med. 2012;166:757-766.
Locke AE, Kahali B, Berndt SI et al. Genetic studies of body mass index yield new insights for obesity biology. - Nature. 2015;518:197-206.
Nandagopal R, Brown RJ, Rother KI. Resolution of type 2 diabetes following bariatric surgery: implications for adults and adolescents. Diabetes Technol Ther. 2010;12:671-677.
Barnett SJ. Surgical management of adolescent obesity. Adv Pediatr. 2013;60:311-325.
Widhalm K, Fritsch M, Widhalm H et al. Bariatric surgery in morbidly obese adolescents: long-term follow-up. Int J Pediatr Obes. 2011;6 (Suppl. 1):65-69.
Himpens J, Cadiere GB, Bazi M et al. Long-term outcomes of laparoscopic adjustable gastric banding. Arch Surg. 2011;146:802-807.
Rosenthal RJ, Diaz AA, Arvidsson D et al. International Sleeve Gastrectomy Expert Panel Consensus Statement: best practice guidelines based on experience of 12,000 cases. Surg Obes Relat Dis. 2012;8:8-19.
Inge TH, Zeller MH, Jenkins TM et al. Perioperative outcomes of adolescents undergoing bariatric surgery: the Teen-Longitudinal Assessment of Bariatric Surgery (Teen-LABS) study. JAMA Pediatr. 2014;168:47-53.
Farooqi SOR, O’Rahilly S. Genetic obesity syndromes. In: Grant S, ed. The Genetics of Obesity. New York: Springer; 2104:23-32.
Tritos NA, Mun E, Bertkau A et al. Serum ghrelin levels in response to glucose load in obese subjects post-gastric bypass surgery. Obes Res. 2003;11:919-924.
Korner J, Bessler M, Cirilo LJ et al. Effects of Roux-en-Y gastric bypass surgery on fasting and postprandial concentrations of plasma ghrelin, peptide YY, and insulin. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2005;90:359-365.
Karamanakos SN, Vagenas K, Kalfarentzos F, Alexandrides TK. Weight loss, appetite suppression, and changes in fasting and postprandial ghrelin and peptide-YY levels after Roux-en-Y gastric bypass and sleeve gastrectomy: a prospective, double blind study. Ann Surg. 2008;247:401-407.
Ramo’n JM, Salvans S, Crous X et al. Effect of Roux-en-Y gastric bypass vs sleeve gastrectomy on glucose and gut hormones: a prospective randomised trial. J Gastrointest Surg. 2012;16:1116-1122.
Hafeez S, Ahmed MH. Bariatric surgery as potential treatment for nonalcoholic fatty liver disease: a future treatment by choice or by chance? J Obes. 2013;2013:839275.
Alqahtani AR, Antonisamy B, Alamri H et al. Laparoscopic sleeve gastrectomy in 108 obese children and adolescents aged 5 to 21 years. Ann Surg. 2012;256:266-273.
Al-Qahtani AR. Laparoscopic adjustable gastric banding in adolescent: safety and efficacy. J Pediatr Surg. 2007;42:894-897.
Inge TH, Jenkins TM, Zeller M et al. Baseline BMI is a strong predictor of nadir BMI after adolescent gastric bypass. J Pediatr. 2010;156:103-108.e1.
Lawson ML, Kirk S, Mitchell T et al. One-year outcomes of Roux-en-Y gastric bypass for morbidly obese adolescents: a multicenter study from the Pediatric Bariatric Study Group. J Pediatr Surg. 2006;41:137-143, discussion 137-143.
Inge TH, Miyano G, Bean J et al. Reversal of type 2 diabetes mellitus and improvements in cardiovascular risk factors after surgical weight loss in adolescents. Pediatrics. 2009;123:214-222.
Inge TH, Prigeon RL, Elder DA et al. Insulin sensitivity and b-cell function improve after gastric bypass in severely obese adolescents. J Pediatr. 2015;167:1042-1048.e1.
Kalra M, Inge T. Effect of bariatric surgery on obstructive sleep apnoea in adolescents. Paediatr Respir Rev. 2006;7:260-267.
Michalsky MP, Inge TH, Simmons M et al. Cardiovascular risk factors in severely obese adolescents. JAMA Pediatr. 2015;169:438.
Holterman AX, Holterman M, Browne A et al. Patterns of surgical weight loss and resolution of metabolic abnormalities in superobese bariatric adolescents. J Pediatr Surg. 2012;47:1633-1639.
Ippisch HM, Inge TH, Daniels SR et al. Reversibility of cardiac abnormalities in morbidly obese adolescents. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2008;51:1342-1348.
Michalsky M, Kramer RE, Fullmer MA et al. Developing criteria for pediatric/adolescent bariatric surgery programs. Pediatrics. 2011;128 (Suppl. 2):S65-S70.
Strauss RS, Bradley LJ, Brolin RE. Gastric bypass surgery in adolescents with morbid obesity. J Pediatr. 2001;138:499-504.
Nogueira I, Hrovat K. Adolescent bariatric surgery: review on nutrition considerations. Nutr Clin Pract. 2014;29:740-746.
Sugerman HJ, Sugerman EL, DeMaria EJ et al. Bariatric surgery for severely obese adolescents. J Gastrointest Surg. 2003;7:102-108.
Kaulfers AM, Bean JA, Inge TH et al. Bone loss in adolescents after bariatric surgery. Pediatrics. 2011;127:e956-e961.
August GP, Caprio S, Fennoy I, Freemark M, Kaufman FR, Lustig RH, Silverstein JH, Speiser PW, Styne DM, Montori VM. Prevention and treatment of pediatric obesity: an endocrine society clinical practice guideline based on expert opinion. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2008;93:4576–4599.
